International Journal of Experimental Sports Science Research
The International Journal of Experimental Sports Science Research focuses on research and innovation in the field of sports science, with the aim of promoting knowledge related to sports. It serves as a platform for researchers, academics, and practitioners to share knowledge and experiences in sports science. Objectives and Goals: To educate the public and professionals in the sports sector about current issues in sports. To disseminate research findings that can be implemented in sports policy. To facilitate collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to create effective solutions for advancing sports science.
The Effect of Shmeck's Concept Model on Learning Selected Skills on the Horizontal Bar in Artistic Gymnastics among Students of the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences
Backgroud: The significance of this research lies in the application of the Schmick conceptual model to the teaching of selected parallel bars skills in gymnastics among students at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences. The study aimed to determine the effectiveness of the Schmick conceptual model in improving skill acquisition compared with traditional teaching methods. The research problem was formulated as follows; Does the Schmick Conceptual Model have an impact on the teaching of selected parallel bars skills in gymnastics among students at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences? Methods: An experimental research approach was employed to examine the effect of the Schmick conceptual model on the acquisition of selected parallel bars skills. The research sample consisted of students from the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences. The Schmick conceptual model was applied as the instructional intervention for teaching selected gymnastics skills on the parallel bars. Results: The findings indicated that the Schmick conceptual model was effective in teaching selected parallel bars skills in gymnastics. The application of the model contributed to the successful implementation and acquisition of the targeted skills among students at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences. Conclusions: The Schmick conceptual model is an effective instructional model for teaching selected parallel bars skills in gymnastics to students at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences. Based on these findings, it is recommended that physical education instructors adopt the Schmick conceptual model as a valid educational approach to facilitate the successful teaching, learning, and application of parallel bars skills in gymnastics.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ali Shamil Hussein (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Transformational Leadership and Leadership Mindfulness and Their Relationship with the Level of Organizational Flourishing among Sub-Federations of Fencing in Iraq
Backgroud: Modern administrative concepts play an important role in improving the performance of sports organizations, including sub-federations of fencing in Iraq. Transformational leadership and leadership mindfulness are considered effective approaches that help organizations adopt purposeful strategies, encourage creativity, adapt to environmental challenges, enhance competitive advantage, and achieve high levels of administrative efficiency. Organizational flourishing represents an indicator of an organization’s ability to achieve sustainable development and excellence. Therefore, this study examined the relationships between transformational leadership, leadership mindfulness, and organizational flourishing in sub-federations of fencing in Iraq. Methods: A descriptive correlational research design was employed. The study focused on sub-federations of fencing in Iraq, and measures of transformational leadership, leadership mindfulness, and organizational flourishing were developed and applied to the research sample. Data were analyzed to determine the levels of the three variables and to identify the correlational relationships among them. Results: The findings revealed that the levels of transformational leadership, leadership mindfulness, and organizational flourishing among the sample were very good. In addition, statistically significant positive correlations were found between transformational leadership and organizational flourishing, as well as between leadership mindfulness and organizational flourishing in the sub-federations of fencing in Iraq. Conclusions: The study concluded that transformational leadership and leadership mindfulness are important factors associated with organizational flourishing in sub-federations of fencing in Iraq. The developed measures proved effective in assessing these variables, and the results indicate that enhancing transformational leadership practices and leadership mindfulness can contribute to strengthening organizational flourishing and improving administrative performance in sports organizations.
Copyright (c) 2026 Ali Nazar Mohi Mahdi, Israa Razzaq Chafat Alwan, Akram Waheed Ibrahim (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effect of B-Complex Vitamins Associated With Anaerobic Threshold Training on Some Biomotor Variables and Performance Tolerance in Young Boxers
Backgroud: Boxing sport requires a complex physical and physiological preparation. Many young boxers experience a significant decrease in performance and speed in the final rounds of the fight. A field study was conducted on 20 adolescent boxers (17-18 years) in Babil Governorate to assess the effect of integration of 'anaerobic threshold exercises' with the nutritional intervention under investigation. Methods: The study lasted for 8 weeks and the sample trained at a high intensity (between 80% and 90% of the maximum) where lactic acid begins to accumulate in the muscles. The experimental group was defined as the group that took one capsule of B-Complex vitamins every morning after breakfast and the control group only exercised. Results: The results indicated a clear advantage of the experimental group in the post-tests, showing a significant increase in explosive strength of the arms, speed endurance and the ability to sustain high performance in three consecutive rounds without a significant decrease. The scientific reason for this achievement is due to the role of B-Complex vitamins as enzymatic co-factors that enhance the metabolism of energy production (ATP) under hypoxic conditions, while minimising the adverse effects of the accumulation of lactic acid. Conclusions: These vitamins, particularly B6 and B12, were crucial in protecting the central nervous system, stalling “central fatigue” and preserving motor coordination and dazzling precision.The study recommends that coaches should include anaerobic threshold exercises during the special preparation period and support with morning B-Complex under medical supervision to enhance endurance and performance of players.
Copyright (c) 2026 Haider Mohammed Jassim Al-Khaikani (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effectiveness of Administrative Training Courses and Their Relationship to Classroom Management Among Physical Education Teachers in the Samarra Directorate of Education
Backgroud: This study was aimed at examining the impact of administrative training courses and its relationships with classroom management of physical education teachers at the Samarra Education Department. This research is based on the assumption that the administrative training can be considered the essential component in developing professional competences of the teacher and keeping up with the educational and pedagogical developments in school sports. The classroom management can be viewed as the key competence in achieving the goals of the educational process. Methods: A descriptive research methodology was used with the use of a survey-analytical approach and correlational analysis, which was recognized as the most suitable approach to research problem and its goals. The research population consisted of 134 physical education teachers of the Salah Al-Din Directorate of Education, Samarra Education Department. The participants were divided into the pilot sample of 10 teachers and the main sample of 124 teachers. The questionnaire was used as the main research instrument, which comprised the Administrative Training Scale of five factors and 15 questions, as well as the Classroom Management Scale. Results: It was found that there is a statistically significant positive correlation between the effectiveness of administrative training courses and classroom management (p = 0.017). Moreover, it was revealed that the physical education teachers have satisfactory participation in administrative training courses and possess sufficient skills of classroom management. Conclusions: Administrative training plays the important role in the formation of professional attitude and motivates to work. Moreover, it makes the transition from the routine professional activity to the modern developments in school sports possible
Copyright (c) 2026 Mohammed Rashid Mohammed, Hussein Tareq Hussein, Mahmood Munshid Murshed (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effect of Plyometric Box Jump Exercises on Leg Power and Freestyle Swimming Start Speed in Paotere Swimming Club Makassar Athletes
Backgroud: This study aimed to examine the effect of plyometric box jump training on leg power and 15-meter freestyle start speed among athletes of Paotere Swimming Club Makassar. Methods: The research was conducted in March 2026 at the Universitas Hasanuddin (Unhas) swimming pool, Makassar, using a quantitative pre-experimental method with a one-group pretest-posttest design. Twelve athletes were selected through purposive sampling and completed a six-week plyometric box jump program, three sessions per week, in addition to their regular swimming training. Leg power was measured using the standing broad jump test, while start speed was measured as the time required to cover 15 meters from the starting block. Results: Data were analyzed using the Shapiro-Wilk normality test and paired sample t-test. The results showed a significant improvement in leg power, with the average standing broad jump distance increasing from 1.98 ± 0.15 m to 2.19 ± 0.14 m (t = 6.812, p = 0.000, Cohen's d = 1.97, 95% CI 0.14, 0.28 m), and a significant reduction in 15-meter start time, from 7.45 ± 0.32 seconds to 6.98 ± 0.29 seconds (t = 5.934, p = 0.000, Cohen's d = 1.71, 95% CI -0.64, -0.30 s). Conclusions: These findings indicate that a structured plyometric box jump program can effectively enhance explosive leg power and accelerate the swimming start phase. It is recommended that swimming coaches incorporate periodized plyometric box jump exercises into dryland training to support faster and more powerful starts in freestyle swimming.
Copyright (c) 2026 Siti Nurhalizah Mutia Aulria, Charmila Tandi Rerung, Muhammad Syukur (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Evaluation of the Implementation of the Basketball Extracurricular Program as an Effort to Foster Sports Achievement at MAN 2 Makassar City
Backgroud: This study aims to evaluate the implementation of basketball extracurricular programs at MAN 2 Makassar City as an effort to foster sports achievements using the Context, Input, Process, Product (CIPP) model, so as to obtain a comprehensive picture of the strengths, constraints, and results of program implementation Methods: The research uses an evaluative qualitative approach with the CIPP model. A total of 15 informants were selected purposively, consisting of one trainer, one student coordinator, one PJOK teacher, and twelve active participating students. Data collection was carried out through interviews, observations, and documentation. The validity of the data is maintained through triangulation, member checking, and trail audits, while data analysis is carried out thematically based on the CIPP component Results: The evaluation showed that the context aspect obtained good institutional support as well as high student interest. In terms of input, the limited number of certified coaches and the low intensity of participating in competitions are the main obstacles. The process aspect shows that the program is carried out according to the schedule even though the attendance of participants still fluctuates. The product aspect shows an improvement in basic skills and participation in inter-school competitions, but has not resulted in achievements at the provincial level. Conclusions: The basketball extracurricular program at MAN 2 Makassar City has been running well, but it still needs to be strengthened in terms of resources and competitive opportunities. Partnerships for coach certification and the provision of tiered competitions are the main recommendations to increase the effectiveness of coaching and sports achievements in schools.
Copyright (c) 2026 Herman, Sarifuddin Arham (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Optimal HIIT Workout Dosage for Weight Loss in Sedentary Adults
Backgroud: High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) has emerged as a time-efficient alternative exercise modality to moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) in an effort to lose weight and body fat in sedentary populations. Methods: This article systematically reviews the current literature on the most optimal doses of HIIT training (frequency, session duration, intensity, and work-rest ratio) for weight loss in adults who were previously physically inactive. Searches were conducted on PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases for relevant randomized clinical trials (RCTs), meta-analyses, and systematic reviews. Results: The results of the synthesis showed that HIIT programs run for more than 8 weeks, a minimum of 3 sessions per week, with work intervals of less than 60 seconds separated by active recovery ≤90 seconds were shown to be more effective in producing beneficial changes in body composition. In addition, HIIT with a volume of ≥75 minutes per week showed advantages over the control group in indicators of body fat percentage, waist-to-hip circumference, and VO₂max, so it could be considered for short-term fat loss. The effects of HIIT on fat loss and cardiorespiratory fitness in young and middle-aged adults are equal to or better than MICT, which is influenced by age, obesity complications, duration of intervention (>6 weeks), frequency, and length of HIIT intervals. Conclusions: that the optimal HIIT dosage for the sedentary population ranges from a frequency of 3 times/week, the duration of the program is more than 8 weeks, with a weekly volume of at least 75 minutes, although it is necessary to make gradual adjustments given the characteristics of a population that has not been adapted to high-intensity exercise.
HIIT; Workout doses; Weight loss; Sedenter; Body composition
Copyright (c) 2026 Grayson Kayla Rakkan (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Effectiveness of Virtual Reality-Based Training on Shooting Performance among BOA SORTE FC Futsal Players
Background: Futsal is characterized by high-intensity intermittent actions requiring rapid perception, decision-making, technical precision, and shooting accuracy. Conventional shooting training improves technical execution but often lacks the perceptual and cognitive demands experienced during competitive matches. Virtual Reality (VR)-based training has emerged as an innovative training modality capable of providing immersive and representative learning environments that integrate perceptual, cognitive, and motor components simultaneously.. Objective: This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of an eight-week Virtual Reality-based training program on shooting performance among BOA SORTE FC futsal players from Timor-Leste. Methods: A quasi-experimental pretest–posttest control group design was employed involving twenty-four male futsal players from BOA SORTE FC (age 18–24 years). Participants were allocated into a Virtual Reality Training Group (n = 12) and a Conventional Training Group (n = 12). Both groups completed three training sessions per week for eight weeks. The VR group performed immersive shooting simulations using VR technology integrated with decision-making tasks, whereas the control group received conventional shooting drills. Shooting accuracy, ball velocity, shooting reaction time, and shooting success percentage were assessed before and after the intervention. Data were analyzed using paired-samples t-tests, independent t-tests, ANCOVA, and Cohen's d effect size with a significance level of p < 0.05. Results: Players receiving Virtual Reality-based training demonstrated significantly greater improvements in shooting accuracy, shooting success percentage, reaction time, and ball velocity compared with the conventional training group (p < 0.05). The largest improvement was observed in shooting accuracy (Cohen's d > 1.20), indicating a large practical effect. Conclusion: Virtual Reality-based training is an effective complementary training strategy for improving shooting performance in competitive futsal players. Integrating immersive perceptual-cognitive practice with conventional technical training provides superior improvements compared with conventional training alone.
Copyright (c) 2026 Luca Gabriel Guterres (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Effect of Very Low Intensity Weight Squat Exercises (<30% 1-RM) on Leg Strength of Sports Coaching Education Students
Background: Leg strength is a fundamental physical component required by sports coaching education students to support both their academic practical activities and future professional roles as sports coaches. Traditional resistance training guidelines generally recommend moderate-to-high intensity loads (>60% 1-RM) to elicit meaningful strength gains. However, very low-intensity squat training combined with techniques such as slow-tempo execution and reduced rest intervals has recently emerged as a potential alternative for inducing strength adaptations, particularly for individuals seeking joint-friendly training options. Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of very low-intensity squat training in producing leg strength gains among sports coaching education students remains limited. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effect of very low-intensity squat training (<30% 1-RM) on leg strength among sports coaching education students. Methods: This study employed a quantitative approach using a Pre-Experimental One Group Pretest-Posttest Design. The participants consisted of 38 sports coaching education students selected through purposive sampling. The intervention was conducted over eight weeks with a frequency of three sessions per week, in which participants performed back squat exercises at an intensity below 30% of their one-repetition maximum (1-RM), executed with slow tempo and short inter-set rest intervals to maximize time under tension and metabolic stress. Leg strength was assessed using the back squat 1-RM test, while leg power was assessed using the standing broad jump test. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, and Paired Sample t-Test at a significance level of α = 0.05. Results: The findings revealed significant improvements in leg strength and power following the intervention. Back squat 1-RM increased from 52.36 ± 9.14 kg to 64.78 ± 10.27 kg, representing a 23.73% improvement (p = 0.000). Standing broad jump distance increased from 178.42 ± 14.36 cm to 196.85 ± 13.92 cm, representing a 10.33% improvement (p = 0.000). Conclusions: Very low-intensity squat training (<30% 1-RM) performed with slow tempo and short rest intervals significantly improves leg strength and power among sports coaching education students, suggesting that this training approach is a viable, joint-friendly alternative to conventional high-intensity resistance training for enhancing lower-limb strength in this population.
Copyright (c) 2025 Arga Arga, Muhammad Arkanul Arba', Siti Nurhalizah Mutia Aulria, Charmila Tandi Rerung (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Interval Running vs Steady-State Jogging Training: A Case Study of Fat Percent Reduction
Background: Body fat percentage reduction is one of the primary objectives among recreational runners, and various training modalities have been proposed to achieve this outcome efficiently. Interval running training and steady-state jogging represent two widely practiced approaches with distinct physiological demands, yet comparative evidence regarding their relative effectiveness in reducing body fat percentage among recreational running club members remains limited. Objectives: This study aimed to compare the effect of interval running training and steady-state jogging on body fat percentage reduction among members of a recreational running community. Methods: This study employed a quantitative approach using a Quasi-Experimental Two-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. The participants consisted of 40 members of a recreational running club selected through purposive sampling and divided into two groups: an interval training group (n = 20) and a steady-state jogging group (n = 20). The intervention was conducted over eight weeks with a frequency of three sessions per week. The interval training group performed repeated high-intensity running bouts alternated with active recovery periods, while the steady-state jogging group performed continuous running at a constant moderate intensity for an equivalent total duration. Body fat percentage was measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), and VO2max was estimated using the Multistage Fitness Test (Bleep Test). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, Paired Sample t-Test, and Independent Sample t-Test at a significance level of α = 0.05. Results: Both groups demonstrated significant reductions in body fat percentage following the intervention. The interval training group showed a decrease from 26.84 ± 4.12% to 21.37 ± 3.58%, representing a 20.38% reduction (p = 0.000), while the steady-state jogging group showed a decrease from 27.05 ± 4.46% to 23.92 ± 4.01%, representing an 11.58% reduction (p = 0.000). The independent sample t-test revealed a significantly greater reduction in the interval training group compared to the steady-state jogging group (p = 0.002). Conclusions: Interval running training produces a significantly greater reduction in body fat percentage compared to steady-state jogging among recreational running club members, suggesting that interval training is a more time-efficient and metabolically effective strategy for body composition improvement in this population.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nurhalisa Nurhalisa, Nurul Sukmawati R (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Effect of Interval Training Based on Heart Rate Variability (HRV) on Sleep Quality After Aerobic Exercise
Background: Sleep quality is an essential component of post-exercise recovery, particularly following high-intensity physical activities such as aerobic exercise. Autonomic nervous system regulation, commonly assessed through Heart Rate Variability (HRV), has been associated with recovery efficiency and sleep regulation. However, empirical evidence on the application of HRV-based interval training as a recovery strategy to improve sleep quality after aerobic exercise remains limited, particularly among adult women participating in community-based exercise programs. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effect of HRV-based interval training on sleep quality following aerobic exercise among members of the Bunda Antang aerobic exercise group. Methods: This study employed a quantitative approach using a Pre-Experimental One Group Pretest-Posttest Design. The participants consisted of 25 women aged 35–45 years selected through purposive sampling from the Bunda Antang aerobic exercise community. The intervention was conducted over six weeks using HRV-based interval training, in which exercise intensity and recovery intervals were individually adjusted according to real-time HRV monitoring. Sleep quality was assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), while HRV parameters were measured using a chest-strap heart rate sensor connected to HRV analysis software. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, and Paired Sample t-Test at a significance level of α = 0.05. Results: The findings revealed significant improvements in sleep quality and HRV parameters following the intervention. PSQI global scores decreased from 11.84 ± 2.31 to 7.12 ± 2.04, representing a 39.86% improvement (p = 0.000). RMSSD values increased from 28.46 ± 6.72 ms to 41.93 ± 7.85 ms, representing a 47.33% improvement (p = 0.000). The largest improvement in PSQI components was observed in sleep latency, while RMSSD showed the most substantial increase among HRV parameters. Conclusions: HRV-based interval training significantly improves sleep quality and autonomic recovery following aerobic exercise. These findings indicate that HRV-based interval training is an effective recovery strategy for enhancing sleep quality among adult women engaged in community-based aerobic exercise programs.
Copyright (c) 2025 Muh. Nur Fajar Arsyad, Syamsiah Syamsiah (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Impact of Virtual Reality Training on Habituation in 3-Meter Shooting Basketball
Background: Habituation in shooting basketball is a critical component that determines the consistency of athletes' performance in dynamic match situations. Virtual Reality (VR) technology offers an immersive simulation environment that allows for repetition of shooting exercises under controlled and varied conditions. However, scientific research that specifically examines the impact of VR training on 3-meter distance shooting habituation in basketball athletes in Indonesia is still very limited. Objectives: This study aims to analyze the impact of the 8-week Virtual Reality training program on habituation levels, shooting accuracy, consistency of shot mechanics, and release speed in basketball athletes. Methods: A pre-experimental design of one-group pretest-posttest was used in this study. Thirty men's basketball athletes (purposive sampling) participated in a VR training program using the Meta Quest 3 headset with a simulation shooting game for 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week. Variables measured included: shooting accuracy (%), habituation index (%), release speed (ms), and release angle consistency (°). Data were analyzed using the Paired Sample T-Test (α = 0.05). Results: There was a significant improvement in shooting accuracy (pre: 48.3 ± 7.2% → post: 67.4 ± 5.8%; p = 0.000), habituation index (pre: 61.2 ± 9.4% → post: 82.7 ± 6.1%; p = 0.000), release speed (pre: 824 ± 64 ms → post: 693 ± 51 ms; p = 0.000), and release angle consistency (pre: 68.4 ± 8.7° → post: 74.2 ± 5.3°; p = 0.001). Conclusions: The 8-week Virtual Reality training program significantly improved the habituation and performance of shooting 3-meter basketball, with practical implications for coaches in designing technology-based training periodizations.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ahmad Latando Paturusi, Muh. Hidayat (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Improving Students' Motor Skills, Competency and Sportsmanship with a Cooperative Learning Approach to Floor Gymnastics Materials
Background: Motor Skill Competency and sportsmanship are two essential outcomes of physical education learning that contribute to students' physical development and character formation. However, many students still demonstrate limited mastery of floor gymnastics skills and insufficient sportsmanship behaviors during learning activities. Cooperative Learning is considered an effective instructional approach because it promotes active participation, peer interaction, collaboration, and shared responsibility among students. Nevertheless, empirical evidence examining its simultaneous effect on Motor Skill Competency and sportsmanship in floor gymnastics learning remains limited. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of the Cooperative Learning approach in improving Motor Skill Competency and sportsmanship among students during floor gymnastics learning. Methods: This study employed a quantitative approach using a pre-experimental one-group pretest-posttest design. The participants consisted of 36 junior high school students selected through purposive sampling. The intervention was conducted over eight weeks using the Cooperative Learning approach in floor gymnastics lessons. Motor Skill Competency was assessed through performance-based evaluations covering balance, coordination, flexibility, body control, and movement technique, while sportsmanship was measured using a validated questionnaire. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, the Shapiro-Wilk normality test, and Paired Sample t-Test at a significance level of α = 0.05. Results: The findings revealed significant improvements in both Motor Skill Competency and sportsmanship following the intervention. Motor Skill Competency increased from 67.42 ± 7.63 to 82.51 ± 6.38, representing a 22.38% improvement (p = 0.000). Sportsmanship scores increased from 70.18 ± 6.92 to 84.67 ± 5.81, representing a 20.64% improvement (p = 0.000). The largest improvement in Motor Skill Competency was observed in movement technique, while teamwork demonstrated the highest increase among sportsmanship indicators. Conclusions: The Cooperative Learning approach significantly improves both Motor Skill Competency and sportsmanship in floor gymnastics learning. These findings indicate that Cooperative Learning is an effective pedagogical strategy for simultaneously enhancing students' motor performance and positive social behaviors in physical education settings.
Cooperative Learning; Motor Skill Competency; Sportsmanship; Floor Gymnastics; Physical Education; Students.
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Experimental Sports Science Research
Improving Silat Kick Performance through Muscle Training: Impact on Movement Mechanics and Movement Consistency in South Sulawesi Pencak Silat Athletes
Background: Kick performance in pencak silat is determined by the interaction of muscle explosive power, movement mechanics, and neuromuscular consistency. Athletes from South Sulawesi who compete in national and regional tournaments require evidence-based training protocols to optimize kicking biomechanics. However, scientific research specifically addressing the effect of muscle training programs on kicking mechanics and movement consistency in South Sulawesi pencak silat athletes remains limited. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effect of an 8-week structured muscle training program (combining plyometric and resistance training) on kick velocity, angular velocity, impact force, and movement consistency in pencak silat athletes from South Sulawesi. Methods: A pre-experimental one-group pretest-posttest design was employed. Thirty-two male athletes from South Sulawesi's provincial pencak silat contingent (PELATDA Sulawesi Selatan) were selected by purposive sampling. The training program combined progressive plyometric exercises (squat jumps, box jumps, depth jumps) with resistance training (leg press, hamstring curl, hip flexor strengthening) for 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week. Kick biomechanics including kick velocity (m/s), angular velocity of knee joint (°/s), peak impact force (N), and consistency index were measured using 2D kinematic analysis with Kinovea software and a force pad sensor. Data were analyzed using Paired Sample T-Test (α = 0.05). Results: Significant improvements were found in kick velocity (pre: 7.84 ± 0.93 m/s → post: 9.47 ± 0.81 m/s; p = 0.000), angular velocity (pre: 412.6 ± 38.4 °/s → post: 498.3 ± 32.7 °/s; p = 0.000), peak impact force (pre: 1.247 ± 186.4 N → post: 1.534 ± 164.2 N; p = 0.000), and consistency index (pre: 72.4 ± 8.1% → post: 84.6 ± 6.3%; p = 0.001). Conclusions: A structured 8-week combined plyometric and resistance training program significantly enhances both biomechanical parameters and movement consistency of kicks in South Sulawesi pencak silat athletes, with practical implications for performance coaching and periodization planning.
Pencak Silat; Kick Performance; Muscle Training; Biomechanics; Movement Consistency; South Sulawesi Athletes; Plyometric; Kinovea.
The Effect of Skeletal Muscle Exercise on Body Immunity: A Literature Review on Inflammation and Immune Cell Response
Background: Skeletal muscle exercise has long been recognized as a physiological stimulus that not only influences physical capacity but also significantly modulates the immune system. However, a deep understanding of how exercise affects systemic inflammation and the responses of various immune cell populations including NK cells, T lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages continues to evolve and requires comprehensive synthesis. Objectives: This literature review aimed to systematically analyze the effect of skeletal muscle exercise on two main immunity domains: (1) regulation of systemic inflammation through biochemical markers, and (2) specific immune cell responses across different exercise modalities and intensities. Methods: Literature searches were conducted on PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect using keywords related to physical exercise, inflammation, and immune cells, limited to publications from 2015–2025. Twenty-five articles were selected based on PRISMA criteria for narrative analysis. Results: Moderate exercise consistently reduced pro-inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, CRP) and increased anti-inflammatory markers (IL-10, IL-4, adiponectin). At the cellular level, moderate aerobic exercise increased NK cell cytotoxic activity by up to 65%, improved CD4+/CD8+ ratio, and enhanced phagocytic capacity of neutrophils and macrophages. Conversely, very high-intensity exercise without adequate recovery triggered transient immunosuppression characterized by lymphopenia, elevated cortisol, and decreased sIgA. Conclusions: Skeletal muscle exercise with appropriate intensity and volume constitutes a potent natural immunomodulator. Optimal exercise doses differ for optimizing inflammatory versus cellular immune responses and must be individualized.
: Skeletal Muscle Exercise; Immunity; Inflammation; NK Cells; T Lymphocytes; Neutrophils; Macrophages; Literature Review.
The Relationship Between Skeletal Muscle Exercise and Immune Endurance: A Literature Review
Background: Skeletal muscle functions not only as a locomotor organ but also as an active endocrine organ that produces myokines bioactive peptides with pleiotropic effects on the immune system. Understanding the relationship between skeletal muscle exercise and immune endurance is increasingly relevant amid rising infectious diseases and declining immunity in physically inactive populations. Objectives: This literature review aimed to synthesize and analyze current scientific evidence on the mechanistic relationship between skeletal muscle exercise and immune endurance, encompassing molecular pathways involved, effects of exercise on cellular and humoral immune components, and the implications of exercise dose on immune response. Methods: A systematic literature search was conducted on PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect using keywords: skeletal muscle exercise, immune system, myokines, immunomodulation, physical activity, and inflammation. Inclusion criteria covered original research articles and reviews published between 2015–2025 in English and Indonesian. Twenty-three articles met criteria for narrative analysis. Results: Moderate-intensity skeletal muscle exercise consistently enhances immune function through: (1) production and secretion of myokines particularly IL-6, IL-15, irisin, and BDNF which modulate NK cell, T cell, macrophage, and neutrophil activity; (2) regulation of systemic inflammation through reductions in TNF-α, IL-1β, and CRP; (3) increased leukocyte circulation and phagocytic capacity; and (4) improved mucosal barrier function and secretory IgA production. Conversely, very high-intensity prolonged exercise without adequate recovery induces transient immunosuppression through elevated cortisol and decreased lymphocyte ratio. Conclusions: Moderate-intensity skeletal muscle exercise with appropriate frequency and duration is an effective natural immunomodulator. Understanding optimal exercise dose is critical to maximizing immunological benefits while avoiding immunosuppression risk.
Changes in Muscle Fiber Characteristics Due to Resistance and Endurance Training Programs in Sports Coaching Education Students at UPRI
Background: Muscle fiber composition is a fundamental determinant of physical performance and athletic potential. Systematic training programs, particularly resistance and endurance training, are known to induce distinct adaptations in Type I (slow-twitch) and Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers at morphological, metabolic, and molecular levels. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze changes in muscle fiber characteristics including cross-sectional area (CSA), myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform expression, and oxidative enzyme activity following 12 weeks of structured resistance and endurance training programs in Sports Coaching Education students at Universitas Pejuang Republik Indonesia (UPRI). Methods: A quasi-experimental design with pre-test and post-test was applied to 40 male students (aged 18–22 years) randomly assigned to resistance training (RT, n=20) or endurance training (ET, n=20) groups. Physical performance tests (1RM bench press, VO₂max beep test, vertical jump, and 30-meter sprint) were conducted before and after the 12-week intervention. Muscle fiber adaptation indicators were assessed via isokinetic dynamometry and functional indirect markers. Results: The RT group demonstrated significant increases in Type II fiber hypertrophy indicators (CSA estimated via ultrasound), maximum strength (1RM +23.4%), and explosive power (vertical jump +18.7%). The ET group showed improvements in aerobic capacity (VO₂max +16.2%), muscular endurance, and fatigue resistance consistent with a shift toward Type I fiber dominance. Conclusions: A 12-week structured training program produces distinct muscle fiber adaptations depending on modality. Resistance training promotes Type II fiber characteristics, while endurance training enhances Type I fiber qualities. These findings provide evidence-based guidance for program design in sports coaching education curricula.
The Effect of Throwing and Catching Exercises on Basketball Playing Ability of Grade 3 Students at SDI Unggulan BTN Pemda
Background: Throwing and catching skills form the primary foundation of basketball that must be developed from an early age. For Grade 3 elementary students, hand-eye coordination, fine motor control, and ball-handling confidence are essential prerequisites in physical education learning. However, the lack of structured training programs targeting these fundamental skills hinders the improvement of basketball abilities at the elementary level. Objectives: This study aimed to analyze the effect of an 8-week structured throwing and catching training program on basketball playing ability among Grade 3 students at SDI Unggulan BTN Pemda. Methods: A pre-experimental one-group pre-test post-test design was applied to 30 Grade 3 students (15 male, 15 female) selected through total sampling. Instruments included chest pass accuracy test, bounce pass test, overhead pass test, zigzag dribbling, lay-up test, and a modified 3 vs 3 game assessment. The intervention was conducted 3 sessions per week for 8 weeks. Results: Significant improvements were found across all basketball playing ability variables (p < 0.05). The largest gains were in chest pass accuracy (+48.6%), followed by bounce pass (+41.2%) and 3 vs 3 game score (+38.4%). Significant improvements were also noted in zigzag dribbling (-24.8%), overhead pass (+36.7%), and lay-up (+33.1%). Conclusions: A systematic and structured throwing and catching training program significantly improved basketball playing ability among Grade 3 students at SDI Unggulan BTN Pemda, proving effective as a pedagogical approach in elementary school physical education.
Throwing and Catching; Basketball; Elementary School; Physical Education; Motor Skills.
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Experimental Sports Science Research https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Role of Training in Muscle Fiber Type Composition Changes Among Petanque Athletes in Soppeng
Background: Petanque is a precision sport requiring fine motor neuromuscular control, postural stability, and limb strength-endurance. Despite growing popularity in Soppeng Regency, South Sulawesi, scientific evidence on structured training effects on muscle fiber composition in petanque athletes remains scarce. Objectives: This study analyzed muscle fiber type composition changes among 36 Soppeng petanque athletes (18 male, 18 female) following a 12-week periodized training program, comparing adaptations across competition categories (buts, tir, mele). Methods: A quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design was applied to three groups (n=12 each). Measures included handgrip dynamometry, one-leg stance, isokinetic wrist strength, shoulder endurance, 30-meter sprint, VO₂max, and ultrasound CSA of m. flexor digitorum superficialis and m. deltoid. Results: All groups showed significant improvements (p<0.05). Buts athletes demonstrated superior gains in handgrip (+18.4%), balance (+42.3%), and wrist endurance (+31.2%), reflecting Type I fiber dominance. Tir athletes showed greater shoulder explosive power (+24.6%) and sprint improvement (-6.8%), indicating Type II hypertrophy. Mele athletes exhibited balanced adaptations. Conclusions: Petanque-specific training produces category-dependent muscle fiber adaptations, providing the first empirical evidence base for petanque muscle physiology in Soppeng.
Muscle Fiber Composition; Petanque; Soppeng; Training Adaptation; Type I; Type II; Precision Sport; Neuromuscular Control.
Copyright (c) 2026 International Journal of Experimental Sports Science Research https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Relationship Between Strength and Endurance Training on Muscle Fiber Adaptation: A Systematic Review
Background: Muscle fiber adaptation is a central mechanism through which the human body responds to systematic physical training. Understanding the relationship between strength training and endurance training in shaping muscle fiber phenotype is critical for optimizing sports performance, health, and rehabilitation outcomes. Objectives: This narrative review examines the relationship between strength training and endurance training with respect to skeletal muscle fiber adaptations, including morphological, metabolic, and molecular changes in Type I and Type II fibers. Methods: A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus (2015–2025) using relevant keywords. Studies involving human subjects with a minimum 4-week training intervention and fiber-type assessment via biopsy or myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform analysis were included. Results: Strength training predominantly induces Type II fiber hypertrophy through mTORC1/IGF-1 signaling, increases cross-sectional area (CSA) of fast-twitch fibers, and preserves neuromuscular innervation of Type II fibers across the lifespan. Endurance training promotes Type I fiber dominance through PGC-1α/AMPK activation, mitochondrial biogenesis, and enhanced oxidative capacity. Concurrent training produces a mixed adaptive profile dominated by Type IIa hybrid fibers, with evidence of a small negative interference effect on Type I fiber hypertrophy. Aging-related Type II fiber atrophy is most effectively attenuated by chronic strength training. Conclusions: Strength and endurance training produce distinct but complementary adaptations in muscle fiber phenotype. Integrating periodized concurrent training can maximize overall fiber plasticity for diverse performance and health goals.
Strength Training; Endurance Training; Muscle Fiber Adaptation; Type I; Type II; Concurrent Training; Myosin Heavy Chain; Hypertrophy.
The Effect of Training Methods on the Dominance of Type I and Type II Muscle Fibers: An Evidence-Based Systematic Review
Background: Muscle fiber type composition is a key determinant of physical performance, health, and sports specialization. Training modality whether endurance, resistance, high-intensity interval (HIIT), or plyometric has been shown to induce specific adaptations in Type I (slow-twitch) and Type II (fast-twitch) muscle fibers through distinct molecular and histological pathways. Objectives: This narrative review aims to systematically analyze scientific evidence regarding the influence of various training methods on the dominance of Type I and Type II muscle fibers, covering the underlying mechanisms and implications for sports science practice. Methods: A literature review was conducted using electronic databases including Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus, with publication years ranging from 2015 to 2025. Studies involving human subjects with intervention periods of at least 4 weeks and fiber type analysis via muscle biopsy or myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform identification were included. Results: Endurance training consistently shifts fiber composition toward Type I dominance via PGC-1α/AMPK signaling and mitochondrial biogenesis, while high-load resistance training primarily induces Type II hypertrophy. HIIT and sprint interval training promote Type IIa fiber dominance and hybrid fiber development. Plyometric training selectively enhances Type IIx and IIa recruitment. Detraining reverses these adaptations. Conclusions: Different training methods produce distinct, evidence-based adaptations in muscle fiber type composition. Understanding these shifts is critical for designing sports-specific training programs and optimizing athletic performance.
Muscle Fiber Type; Type I; Type II; Training Methods; Myosin Heavy Chain; Endurance; Resistance; HIIT.
The Effect of Sit Up Exercises on Abdominal Circumference Reduction of UPRI Sports Coaching Education Students
Background: Abdominal circumference is one of the key anthropometric indicators of central obesity and health risk in young adults, including university students. Sedentary habits among sports coaching students who lack structured exercise programs contribute to increased abdominal fat accumulation. Objectives: This study aims to analyze the effect of sit-up exercise on the reduction of abdominal circumference in students of the Sports Coaching Education Program at Universitas Pejuang Republik Indonesia (UPRI) Makassar. Methods: A pre-experimental design with one-group pretest-posttest approach was applied to 30 male students selected through purposive sampling. The sit-up training program was conducted for 8 weeks, 3 sessions per week, with progressive frequency from 3 sets of 15 repetitions increasing to 3 sets of 25 repetitions. Abdominal circumference was measured using a non-elastic anthropometric tape at the level of the navel. Data were analyzed using paired t-test with a significance level of α = 0.05. Results: The mean abdominal circumference before the intervention was 86.74 ± 6.32 cm, which decreased to 83.12 ± 5.87 cm after the 8-week program, representing a reduction of 3.62 cm (p = 0.000 < 0.05). Conclusions: Sit-up exercise performed systematically and progressively for 8 weeks is effective in significantly reducing abdominal circumference in Sports Coaching Education students at UPRI Makassar.
Sit-Up Exercise; Abdominal Circumference; Sports Coaching Education; UPRI; Central Obesity.
Analysis of Muscle Fibers of Blue Al-Junaidiyah Students
Background: Muscle fiber type composition is a fundamental determinant of athletic performance and physical capacity. Identifying the predominant muscle fiber type in religious boarding school (pesantren) students provides valuable insights into their physical training needs. Objectives: This study aims to analyze the muscle fiber composition of 50 male students at Santri Al-Junaidiyah Biru Pesantren using the vertical jump test method as an indirect assessment tool. Methods: A descriptive quantitative approach was employed with a total sampling technique involving 50 male students aged 15–18 years. Muscle fiber type was assessed using the Bosco vertical jump protocol which differentiates Type I (slow-twitch) and Type II (fast-twitch) fibers based on jump performance indices. Results: The results showed that 56% of students (n=28) were classified as predominantly Type I (slow-twitch) muscle fiber, while 30% (n=15) were classified as Type II (fast-twitch), and 14% (n=7) showed mixed fiber composition. The mean jump index was 48.6 ± 6.2 cm. Conclusions: The majority of Santri Al-Junaidiyah Biru students have slow-twitch dominant muscle fibers, suggesting an inclination toward endurance-type activities. These findings have significant implications for designing physical education programs tailored to the students' physiological profiles.
Muscle Fiber Analysis; Santri; Vertical Jump Test; Physical Performance; Pesantren.